Waterless and water-efficient fracturing technologies such as gas-based fracturing or foams have been used to reduce the use of freshwater in hydraulic fracturing operations, although the main benefit is enhanced hydrocarbon recovery. The geologic formation characteristics of shale plays largely determine their use. According to experts GAO consulted, hydraulic fracturing operators are managing their water resources more efficiently—for example, by treating produced water for recycle and reuse—as an important part of their overall strategy to reduce cost, improve operational efficiency, and reduce the demand for freshwater. Dry and hybrid (wet-dry) cooling systems are mature technologies to cool thermoelectric power plants, and are highly efficient in terms of water usage. However, these technologies cost more than conventional wet cooling systems and can result in an energy penalty that requires more fuel to be burnt per unit of electricity produced, thereby reducing the net electricity output from the plant. Some emerging cooling technologies which may help reduce water use in wet recirculating cooling systems are at the prototype or conceptual stage of development, and their effectiveness at saving water for power plant cooling applications is still uncertain.